Endometrial Cancer:

Endometrial cancer symptoms are often what prompt women to seek medical attention. Most of the time, the disease remains silent until it has spread to nearby tissues and organs.
Common Endometrial Cancer Symptomsabnormal bleeding- heavy bleeding between periods, or heavy bleeding during irregular periods
pain during sexual intercourse
pelvic pain or pain in the legs or back
difficulty urinating or pain during urination
enlarged uterus found upon medical exam
vaginal discharge that can be thick or watery; pink or brown; and foul smelling
unexpected weight loss
Keep in mind that these symptoms of endometrial cancer are also symptoms for many other illnesses. Please see your doctor if you are experiencing symptoms for a definitive diagnosis.

Penile Cancer:

Penile cancer is rare in the United States and Europe. it is more commonly found in southeast Asia, India, and parts of Africa. Penile cancer affects about 1500 men each year in the United States, and about 600 in the UK.
Symptoms of penile cancer are most commonly noticed in the form of a sore, lesion, or growth on or within the penis. Other symptoms of penile cancer include bleeding or discharge from the penis.
On the average, men wait about a year after experiencing symptoms to go to the doctor to get the problem checked out when it comes to penile problems. Do not do this if you are experiencing any of these symptoms! The earlier penile cancer is detected, the more treatable it is! Not to mention, the earlier it is detected, the lesser chance a penectomy will have to be performed. A penectomy is the partial or full removal of the penis.

Prostate Cancer:

Prostate cancer symptoms do not usually appear until the disease has spread. However, there are symptoms of prostate cancer to watch out for, especially problems with urination. As prostate cancer advances, it constricts the urethra causing difficulties in urination. Difficulties with urination are a common prostate cancer symptom. Prostate Cancer Symptoms
burning or pain during urination
inability to urinate
frequent nocturnal urination
weak urine stream
blood in urine
pelvic pain
back pain
pain in hips
weight lossPlease note that these prostate cancer symptoms are also symptoms for many other illnesses. Please consult your physican if you have a concern.

Prostate Cancer:

Kidney Cancer:

There are many variations of kidney cancer. The most commonly diagnosed type of kidney cancer is renal cell carcinoma. It accounts for more than 85% of kidney cancer diagnosis'.The most commonly experienced kidney cancer symptoms (renal cell carcinoma) are:
Chronic fatigue
Unexplained, rapid weightloss
Leg and ankle swelling
Hypertension (high blood pressure)
Fever
Presence of blood in urine (seen either by the eye, or microscopically)
Pain in side or lower back
Mass or lump in the abdomenKeep in mind that these symptoms are also the signs for many other illnesses. Please see a health care professional if you are experiencing anything abnormal for further diagnosis.

Cervical Cancer:

Cancer of the cervix is a slow moving disease. It initially affects the cervix (the opening to the uterus). Prior to becoming cancerous, cervical cells change in shape or formation. This process is called dysplasia. Dysplasia simply means changes have occurred within the cells and could later become cancerous.Although symptoms are not usually present until the cancer has invaded surrounding tissue, there are signs to look out for:
Abnormal Bleeding
Unusual Heavy Discharge
Pelvic pain
Pain during urination
Bleeding between regular menstrual periods or after sexual intercourse, douching or a pelvic exam
Please keep in mind that these symptoms are also signs of many other illnesses. Consult your physician for a proper diagnosis.

Anal Cancer:

The symptoms of anal cancer are not unique and are also symptoms of other conditions, such as hemorrhoids. Although anal cancer is relatively simple to diagnose, this can cause a delay in diagnosis for those with anal cancer.
Symptoms of anal cancer include:
lumps or bumps located near the anus
anal bleeding or bleeding during bowel movements
anal discharge
pain in or around the anus
itchy sensation around or inside the anus
change in bowel habits, such as constipation, diarrhea and the thinning of the stools What to Do If You Have Anal Cancer SymptomsIf you are experiencing the symptoms of anal cancer, please see your doctor. It is common for some to delay going to the doctor, because they feel embarrassed by anal symptoms or are fearful of being examined in such a private place. Please don't let these emotions prevent you from being examined by a doctor. Fortunately, anal cancer can be detected early on if the patient seeks medical care at the onset of symptoms.

Lung Cancer:

Lung cancer symptoms are commonly not experienced until the disease had advanced, sometimes delaying diagnosis. The symptoms of lung cancer also mimic the symptoms of other benign illnesses.The most common lung cancer symptoms experienced are :
Onset of wheezing
Recurrent pneumonia or bronchitis
Shortness of breath
A persistent cough that does not go away
Coughing up blood
Hoarseness
Weight loss or loss of appetiteIf you are experiencing any of the above lung cancer symptoms, please see your doctor. The symptoms described are also symptoms for many other illnesses. Consult your physician for a definitive diagnosis.

Sarcomas:

Sarcomas are tumors that originate in bone, muscle, cartilage, fibrous tissue or fat. Ewing sarcoma (Family of tumors) and Kaposi's sarcoma are the common types of sarcomas.Ewing sarcoma occurs during the rapid bone growth that generally occurs during puberty. It is seldom seen before a child is 10 years old. The tumor may arise in the long bones of the extremities, most often in the femur (thigh bone) or the pelvis. It may also develop in the skull or the flat bones of the trunk. This type of tumor is almost never seen in black children.Clinical symptoms are few. The most common is pain and occasionally swelling at the site of the tumor. Fever may also be present and is considered an unfavorable prognostic sign. The tumor spreads easily, often to the lungs and other bones. Metastasis is present in approximately one-third of the children at the time of diagnosis. There is no known prevention for this disorder.If a tumor is suspected, tests to locate the primary tumor and any spread often include skeletal and chest X-rays, CT/CAT scan of the chest, bone scan and a biopsy of the tumor.Treatment is under the direction of a cancer specialist (oncologist) and often includes a combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, surgical excision (removal) of the primary tumor, or amputation of the involved extremity (not routinely recommended).Kaposi's sarcoma is a malignant tumor frequently involving the skin of AIDS victims. In AIDS patients, it can develop aggressively and often involves the skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract and other organs. Safe sexual practices can prevent infection with HIV, the virus responsible for AIDS, and its complications of which Kaposi's sarcoma is one.Symptoms include bluish-red macule or papule with an irregular shape, bleeding with gastrointestinal lesions, shortness of breath with pulmonary (lung) lesions, or bloody sputum with pulmonary lesions. Skin lesion biopsy and endoscopy are tests carried out as part of the diagnosis.Treatment decisions depend upon the extent and location of the lesions, as well as the person's symptoms and degree of immunosuppression. Excision of cutaneous lesions can be attempted. Radiation therapy or cryotherapy can be used for lesions in selected areas. Combination chemotherapy can also be used. The tumor can recur even after apparently successful treatment. This can be a fatal disorder for a person with AIDS.

Carcinoma:

Carcinoma is a malignant neoplasm of epithelial origin. It is a tumor that arises in the tissues that line the body's organs like the nose, the colon, the penis, breasts, prostrate, urinary bladder, and the ureter. About 80% of all cancer cases are carcinomas.The most common symptoms in esophageal carcinoma are dysphagia and weight loss. Pain can be a symptom of this disease. It can come from the growth of the tumor, be related to swallowing, or be related to metastases into the surrounding esophageal lymph nodes.The appearance of a skin lesion may indicate a squamous cell carcinoma. Blood in the urine, abnormal urine color, back pain, weight loss, enlargement of one testicle, all indicate the possibility of renal cell carcinoma.In routine physical exams, the doctor looks for anything unusual and feels for any lumps or growths. Specific screening tests, such as lab tests, x-rays, or other procedures, are used routinely for such types of cancer. Blood and urine tests give important information about a person's health. In some cases, special tests are used to measure the amount of certain substances, called tumor markers, in the blood, urine, or certain tissues. Tumor marker levels may be abnormal if certain types of cancer are present. However, lab tests alone cannot be used to diagnose cancer.An abdominal CT scan shows the kidney tumor and may show a liver mass. A chest X-ray may show mass in the chest. A bone scan may show involvement of the bones.

Lymphoma:

Lymphoma is a type of cancer involving cells of the immune system, called lymphocytes. Just as cancer represents many different diseases, lymphoma represents many different cancers of lymphocytes-about 35 different subtypes, in fact.
Lymphoma is a group of cancers that affect the cells that play a role in the immune system, and primarily represents cells involved in the lymphatic system of the body.
The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It consists of a network of vessels that carry a fluid called lymph, similar to the way that the network of blood vessels carry blood throughout the body. Lymph contains white blood cells called lymphocytes. Lymphocytes attack a variety of infectious agents as well as many cells in the precancerous stages of development.
Lymph nodes are small collections of lymph tissue that occur throughout the body. The lymphatic system involves lymphatic channels that connect thousands of lymph nodes scattered throughout the body. Lymph flows through the lymph nodes, as well as through other lymphatic tissues including the spleen, the tonsils, the bone marrow, and the thymus gland.
These lymph nodes filter the lymph, which may carry bacteria, viruses, or other microbes. The lymph nodes, or glands as they may be called, filter the lymph, which may on various occasions carry different microbial organisms. At infection sites, large numbers of these microbial organisms collect in the regional nodes and produce the swelling and tenderness typical of a localized infection. These enlarged and occasionally confluent collections of lymph nodes (so-called lymphadenopathy) are often referred to as "swollen glands."Lymphocytes recognize pathogens (infections and abnormal cells) and destroy them. There are 2 major subtypes of lymphocytes: B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes, also referred to as B cells and T cells. B lymphocytes produce antibodies (proteins that circulate through the blood and lymph and attach to infectious organisms and abnormal cells). The combination attachment cell or antibody microbial organism essentially alerts other cells of the immune system recognize and destroy these intruders, also known as pathogens.
T cells, when activated, can kill pathogens directly. T cells also play a part in the mechanisms of immune system control, to prevent the system from inappropriate overactivity or underactivity.
After fighting off an invader, some of the B and T lymphocytes "remember" the invader and are prepared to fight it off if it returns.Cancer occurs when normal cells undergo a transformation whereby they grow and multiply uncontrollably. Lymphoma is a malignant transformation of either lymphocytes B or T cells or their subtypes.
As the abnormal cells multiply, they may collect in 1 or more lymph nodes or in other lymph tissues such as the spleen.
As the cells continue to multiply, they form a mass often referred to as a tumor.
Tumors often overwhelm surrounding tissues by invading their space, thereby depriving them of the necessary oxygen and nutrients needed to survive and function normally.
Because of their uncontrolled growth, lymphomas can encroach on and/or invade neighboring tissues or distant organs.
In lymphoma, abnormal lymphocytes travel from one lymph node to the next, and sometimes to remote organs, via the lymphatic system.
While lymphomas are often confined to lymph nodes and other lymphatic tissue, they can spread to other types of tissue almost anywhere in the body. Lymphoma development outside of lymphatic tissue is called extranodal disease.Lymphomas fall into 1 of 2 major categories. Hodgkin lymphoma (HL, previously called Hodgkin's disease) and all other lymphomas (non-Hodgkin lymphomas or NHLs).
These 2 types occur in the same places, may be associated with the same symptoms, and often have similar gross physical characteristics. However, they are readily distinguishable via microscopic examination.
Hodgkin disease develops from a specific abnormal B lymphocyte lineage. NHL may derive from either abnormal B or T cells and are distinguished by unique genetic markers.
There are 5 subtypes of Hodgkin disease and about 30 subtypes of non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
Because there are so many different subtypes of lymphoma, the classification of lymphomas is complicated and includes both the microscopic appearance and well-defined genetic and molecular rearrangements.
Many of the NHL subtypes look similar, but they are functionally quite different and respond to different therapies with different probabilities of cure. HL subtypes are microscopically distinct, and typing is based upon the microscopic differences as well as extent of disease.Lymphoma is the most common type of blood cancer in the United States. It is the sixth most common cancer in adults and the third most common in children. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is far more common than Hodgkin disease.
In the United States, about 54,000 new cases of NHL and 7000 new cases of HL were diagnosed in 2004, and the overall incidence is increasing.
About 24,000 people die of NHL and 1400 of HL each year, with the survival rate of all but the most advanced cases of HL greater than that of other lymphomas.
Lymphoma can occur at any age, including childhood. Hodgkin disease is most common in 2 age groups: young adults aged 16-34 years and in older people aged 55 years and older. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is more likely to occur in older people.

Non–Small-Cell Lung Cancer:

Cancers are diseases in which normal cells transform so that they grow and multiply without normal controls. In many types of cancer, this results in the growth of one or more large masses, or tumors, of these transformed cells. This can happen in almost any part of the body. When it happens in the lungs, the disease is called lung cancer. Lung cancer is one of the most common types of cancer; this is because the lungs are exposed to the external environment more than most other organs are. In many cases, cancer-causing substances (carcinogens) in the air are inhaled and cause cell damage that later becomes cancer. The most common cause of lung cancer, by far, is smoking. Two main types of lung cancer exist: small cell lung cancer and non-small-cell lung cancer. Non-small-cell lung cancer is a catchall term for all lung cancers that are not small-cell type. They are grouped together because the treatment is the same for all non-small-cell types. Together, non-small-cell lung cancers, or NSCLCs, make up about 75% of all lung cancers. Each type is named for the types of cells that were transformed to become cancer. The following are the 3 most common types of NSCLC in the United States:
Adenocarcinoma/bronchoalveolar - 35-40%
Squamous cell carcinoma - 25-30%
Large-cell carcinoma - 10-15% Like all cancers, lung cancer is most easily and successfully treated if it is caught early. An early-stage cancer is less likely to have grown to a large size or to have spread to other parts of the body (metastasized). Large or metastasized cancers are much more difficult to treat.

Myeloma:

Myeloma OverviewThe blood contains several different types of cells, each with an important job in the body. All blood cells develop in the bone marrow, the spongy substance within our bones. The originator of all blood cells is an immature cell known as the stem cell. The stem cells give rise to committed or programmed stem cells, which then differentiate to form mature cells that circulate in our blood. There are 3 basic blood cell types:
Red blood cells carry oxygen to, and carbon dioxide from, all bodily tissues in order to maintain effective organ function.
Platelets, in combination with certain plasma proteins, help produce blood clots, which prevent bleeding.White blood cells are part of the immune system, which protects the body from pathogens (things that can make us ill) such as infectious agents and precancerous cells. One of the most important subtypes of white blood cells is the lymphocyte. There are 2 major subtypes of lymphocytes: B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes (often called B cells and T cells). Some B lymphocytes mature into plasma cells. Plasma cells serve as producers of important protective proteins, called antibodies, which circulate and bind to various pathogens, rendering them harmless and susceptible to removal by other white cell components.Myeloma is an accumulation of malfunctioning or "cancerous" plasma cells. Cancer is a disorder characterized by transformation of normal cells to abnormal cells that grow and multiply uncontrollably. The net effect is the appearance of large numbers of abnormal cells capable of forming bodily masses, or tumors, with the capacity to advance locally and invade adjacent tissues and organs or spread either through the lymphatics or the blood vessels into distant organs. The ultimate effect of this "malignant" upheaval is erosion and organ dysfunction.
Most plasma cells reside in the bone marrow, and myeloma, accordingly, usually occurs within the marrow-containing large bones of the body, such as the skull, vertebrae (spine), and hips.
Because they are present throughout the bone marrow, plasma cells that have undergone malignant transformation do so in clumps and usually at many sites, which explains the terminology "multiple myeloma." When only one site is detectable, it is referred to as a solitary plasmacytoma, and these respond dramatically to local radiation or surgical excision. However, the recurrence rate is high, and they may recur years later as solitary or multiple tumors.Because plasma cells are part of the immune system and produce antibodies, the development of myeloma results in an impaired immune system with problems associated with antibody overproduction, as well as the problems associated with any invasive tumor.
Normal plasma cells produce antibodies, also called immunoglobulins (Ig). The abnormal plasma cells in myeloma do not produce the normal vast array of different immunoglobulins. Instead, myeloma cells may produce an abnormal immunoglobulin called a monoclonal protein, or M protein. (Monoclonal means that all proteins produced by this cell line have exactly the same identity and the same impaired function, which is essentially a deficiency.) Accordingly, most patients with myeloma have difficulty fighting off infections.
Plasma cell tumors in the bone marrow crowd out the normal components of the marrow, resulting thereby in decreased numbers of red blood cells, platelets, and other white blood cells. This problem then results in fatigue and shortness of breath (decreased red cell count), bleeding or easy bruising (low platelet count), and increased susceptibility to infections (low white blood cell count).
In myeloma, the abnormal plasma cells eventually invade and destroy the outer, hard layer of bone. The destruction of bones (osteolysis), typically occurring in small areas at different sites, may lead to serious problems. Even a small osteolytic lesion can cause the bone to fracture and collapse. The net effect may be problems with mobility, severe pain, and in the presence of spinal involvement, moderate-to-severe nerve damage.
Boney destruction is often associated with high levels of blood calcium (hypercalcemia.)
Production of M protein by the abnormal plasma cells causes high protein levels in the blood. The extra protein can lodge in the kidneys and obstruct blood flow. The abnormal protein can be directly toxic to the cells in the kidneys as well. The kidneys may become functionally impaired and ultimately fail altogether as a result of the protein blockage.
In some cases of myeloma, excess protein in the blood can cause a condition called hyperviscosity syndrome. The type and amount of immunoglobulin protein can result in thickening the blood beyond normal blood viscosity, which may result in alteration in a variety of bodily, including mental, processes. This syndrome accounts for fewer than 5% of people with myeloma.
Not everyone with myeloma has bone or kidney involvement at the time of diagnosis, but if the disease progresses without treatment, these problems may ultimately arise.Other complications of myeloma may include the following:
Cryoglobulinemia: People with this rare condition produce a protein that precipitates, or falls out of solution, when the blood is exposed to cold temperatures.
Amyloidosis: This rare complication occurs mostly in people whose myeloma produces the light chain components of immunoglobulins. The light chains combine with other substances in the blood to form a sticky protein called amyloid, which impairs the function of whichever organ in which it may accumulate.Different types of myeloma are classified by the type of immunoglobulin produced by the abnormal plasma cells. Immunoglobulins (Ig) are made up of 2 components: light chains and heavy chains and further classified by the type of light (kappa or lambda) or heavy (alpha [IgA], gamma [IgG], mu [IgM], delta [IgD], and epsilon [IgE]) chains.
The most common monoclonal protein in myeloma is the IgG type. This means that the immunoglobulin is comprised of 2 IgG heavy chains and 2 light chains, either 2 kappa or 2 lambda. When the abnormal M protein is identified in myeloma, it is most often an IgG kappa type. However, any other combination is possible.
Less common, but still prevalent, are IgA-producing myeloma cells.
IgM myeloma is much less common.
IgD and IgE myelomas are very rare.
Some myelomas produce an incomplete immunoglobulin consisting of light chains only, known as Bence-Jones proteins, which are not identified by blood tests but readily identified in urine.
Some rare diseases are associated with plasma cell overproduction of heavy chains only. These are referred to as heavy chain diseases. Heavy chain diseases may or may not be similar to myeloma in their characteristics.
Nonsecretory myeloma occurs in about 1% of myelomas and represents malignant plasma cells that do not produce any immunoglobulin chains, heavy or light. A plasma cell disorder related to myeloma is called monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance, or MGUS.
People with MGUS produce small amounts of monoclonal protein, but they have none of the symptoms or complications of myeloma.
MGUS is much more common than myeloma. The incidence of MGUS increases with age. It is uncommon in young individuals and reaches an incidence of approximately 3% in people aged 70 years and older.MGUS is believed to be a premyeloma condition, although not all patients with MGUS develop myeloma. About 30-40% of people with MGUS, given sufficient time, may progress to develop myeloma. Incidence
Myeloma is the second most common blood cancer, but it is not a common cancer. About 15,270 people were expected to be diagnosed with multiple myeloma in the United States in 2004, almost equally distributed between men and women. About 11,070 Americans were expected to die of multiple myeloma in 2004.
Myeloma is predominantly a cancer of older people. More than 80% of people with myeloma are aged 60 years or older.
Myeloma is nearly twice as common in African Americans as in Americans of European, Hispanic, or Asian descent.

Skin Cancer:

Skin cancer is the most common of all human cancers. Some form of skin cancer is diagnosed in more than 1 million people in the United States each year. Cancer occurs when normal cells undergo a transformation during which they grow and multiply without normal controls.As the cells multiply, they form a mass called a tumor. Tumors of the skin are often referred to as lesions. Tumors are cancerous only if they are malignant. This means that they encroach on and invade neighboring tissues because of their uncontrolled growth. Tumors may also travel to remote organs via the bloodstream or lymphatic system. This process of invading and spreading to other organs is called metastasis. Tumors overwhelm surrounding tissues by invading their space and taking the oxygen and nutrients they need to survive and function. Skin cancers are of three major types: basal cell carcinoma (BCC), squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), and melanoma.
The vast majority of skin cancers are BCCs or SCCs. While malignant, these are unlikely to spread to other parts of the body. They may be locally disfiguring if not treated early.
A small but significant number of skin cancers are malignant melanomas. Malignant melanoma is a highly aggressive cancer that tends to spread to other parts of the body. These cancers may be fatal if not treated early. Like many cancers, skin cancers start as precancerous lesions. These
precancerous lesions are changes in skin that are not cancer but could become cancer over time. Medical professionals often refer to these changes as dysplasia. Some specific dysplastic changes that occur in
skin are as follows:
Actinic keratosis is a patch of red or brown, scaly, rough skin, which can develop into squamous cell carcinoma.
A nevus is a mole, and dysplastic nevi are abnormal moles. These can develop into melanoma over time. Moles (nevi) are simply growths on the skin. They are very common. Very
few moles become cancer.
Most people have 10-40 moles on their body.
Moles can be flat or raised; some begin as flat and become raised over
time.
The surface is usually smooth.
Moles are round or oval and no larger than ¼-inch across.
Moles are usually pink, tan, brown, or the same color as the skin.
Other colors are sometimes noted.
An individual's moles usually look pretty much alike. A mole that looks
different from the others should be examined by your health-care
provider. Dysplastic nevi are not cancer, but they can become cancer.
People with dysplastic nevi often have a lot of them, perhaps as many
as 100 or more.
People with many dysplastic nevi are more likely to develop melanoma,
either within an existing nevus or on an area of normal skin.
Dysplastic nevi are usually irregular in shape, with notched or fading
borders.
Dysplastic nevi may be flat or raised, and the surface may be smooth or
rough ("pebbly").
Dysplastic nevi are often large, ¼-inch across or even larger.
Dysplastic nevi are typically of mixed color, including pink, red, tan,
and brown. Recent studies demonstrate that the number of skin cancer cases in the
United States is growing at an alarming rate. Fortunately, increased
awareness on the part of Americans and their health-care providers has
resulted in earlier diagnosis and improved outcomes.

Colon Cancer:

The human colon is a muscular, tube-shaped organ measuring about 4 feet long. It extends from the end of your small bowel to your anus, twisting and turning through your abdomen (belly). The colon has 3 main functions.
To digest and absorb nutrients from food
To concentrate fecal material by absorbing fluid (and electrolytes) from it
To store and control evacuation of fecal material
The right side of your colon plays a major role in absorbing water and electrolytes, while the left side is responsible for storage and evacuation of stool.
Cancer is the transformation of normal cells. The transformed cells grow and multiply abnormally.
Left untreated, these cancers grow and eventually spread through the colon wall to involve the adjacent lymph nodes and organs. Ultimately, they spread to distant organs such as the liver, lungs, brain, and bones.
Cancers are dangerous because of their unbridled growth. They overwhelm healthy cells, tissues, and organs by taking their oxygen, nutrients, and space.
Most colon cancers are adenocarcinomas-tumors that develop from the glands lining the colon's inner wall.
These tumors are sometimes referred to as colorectal cancer, reflecting the fact that the rectum, the end portion of the colon, can also be affected.

Cervical Cancer Causes:

ervical cancer begins with abnormal changes in the cervical tissue. The risk of developing these abnormal changes has been associated with certain factors, including previous infection with human papillomavirus (HPV), early sexual contact, multiple sexual partners, cigarette
smoking, and taking oral contraceptives (birth control pills).
Forms of HPV, a virus whose different types cause skin warts, genital warts, and other abnormal skin and body surface disorders, have been shown to lead to many of the changes in cervical cells that may eventually lead to cancer.
Genetic material that comes from certain forms of HPV has been found in cervical tissues that show cancerous or precancerous changes.
In addition, women who have been diagnosed with HPV are more likely to develop a cervical cancer that has genetic material matching the strain of virus that caused the infection. These findings demonstrate a strong link between the virus and cervical cancer. Because HPV can be transmitted by sexual contact, early sexual contact and having multiple sexual partners have been identified as strong risk factors for the development of cervical lesions that may progress to cancer. Cigarette smoking is another risk factor for the development of cervical cancer. The chemicals in cigarette smoke interact with the cells of the cervix, causing precancerous changes that may over time progress to cancer.
Oral contraceptives ("the pill") may increase the risk for cervical cancer, especially in women who use oral contraceptives for longer than 5 years.

Cervical Cancer Overview:

The uterine cervix is the lowest portion of a woman's uterus (womb).
Most of the uterus lies in the pelvis, but part of the cervix is located in the vagina, where it connects the uterus with the vagina.
Cancer of the cervix occurs when the cells of the cervix change in a way that leads to abnormal growth and invasion of other tissues or organs of the body.
Like all cancers, cancer of the cervix is much more likely to be cured if it is detected early and treated immediately.
One of the key features of cervical cancer is its slow progression from normal cervical tissue, to precancerous (or dysplastic) changes in thetissue, to invasive cancer.
The slow progression through numerous precancerous changes is very important because it provides opportunities for prevention and early detection and treatment.
These opportunities have caused the decline of cervical cancer over the past decades in the United States. Invasive cancer means that the cancer affects the deeper tissues of the cervix and may have spread to other parts of the body. This spread iscalled metastasis. Cervical cancers don't always spread, but those that do most often spread to the lungs, the liver, the bladder, the vagina, and/or the rectum.

Cancer Facts:

Cancer is the second most common cause of death after heart disease.
A significant percentage of newly diagnosed cancers can be cured.
Cancer is more curable when detected early. Although some cancers develop completely without symptoms, the disease can be particularly devastating if you ignore symptoms because you do not think that these symptoms might represent cancer.

Cancer Symptoms:

Cancer often has no specific symptoms, so it is important that you limit your risk factors and undergo appropriate cancer screening.Nevertheless, you need to know which symptoms might point to cancer. You do not want to ignore a warning that might lead to early diagnosis and possibly to a cure.

Hyperthermia in Cancer Treatment:

What is hyperthermia?
Hyperthermia (also called thermal therapy or thermotherapy) is a type of cancer treatment in which body tissue is exposed to high temperatures (up to 113°F). Research has shown that high temperatures can damage and kill cancer cells, usually with minimal injury to normal tissues (1). By killing cancer cells and damaging proteins and structures within cells (2), hyperthermia may shrink tumors.

How is hyperthermia used to treat cancer?
Hyperthermia is almost always used with other forms of cancer therapy, such as radiation therapy and chemotherapy (1, 3). Hyperthermia may make some cancer cells more sensitive to radiation or harm other cancer cells that radiation cannot damage. When hyperthermia and radiation therapy are combined, they are often given within an hour of each other. Hyperthermia can also enhance the effects of certain anticancer drugs.
Numerous clinical trials have studied hyperthermia in combination with radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy. These studies have focused on the treatment of many types of cancer, including sarcoma, melanoma, and cancers of the head and neck, brain, lung, esophagus, breast, bladder, rectum, liver, appendix, cervix, and peritoneal lining (mesothelioma) (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). Many of these studies, but not all, have shown a significant reduction in tumor size when hyperthermia is combined with other treatments (1, 3, 6, 7). However, not all of these studies have shown increased survival in patients receiving the combined treatments (3, 5, 7).
What are the different methods of hyperthermia?
Several methods of hyperthermia are currently under study, including local, regional, and whole-body hyperthermia (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).
In local hyperthermia, heat is applied to a small area, such as a tumor, using various techniques that deliver energy to heat the tumor. Different types of energy may be used to apply heat, including microwave, radiofrequency, and ultrasound. Depending on the tumor location, there are several approaches to local hyperthermia:
External approaches are used to treat tumors that are in or just below the skin. External applicators are positioned around or near the appropriate region, and energy is focused on the tumor to raise its temperature.
Intraluminal or endocavitary methods may be used to treat tumors within or near body cavities, such as the esophagus or rectum. Probes are placed inside the cavity and inserted into the tumor to deliver energy and heat the area directly.
Interstitial techniques are used to treat tumors deep within the body, such as brain tumors. This technique allows the tumor to be heated to higher temperatures than external techniques. Under anesthesia, probes or needles are inserted into the tumor. Imaging techniques, such as ultrasound, may be used to make sure the probe is properly positioned within the tumor. The heat source is then inserted into the probe. Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is a type of interstitial hyperthermia that uses radio waves to heat and kill cancer cells.
In regional hyperthermia, various approaches may be used to heat large areas of tissue, such as a body cavity, organ, or limb.
Deep tissue approaches may be used to treat cancers within the body, such as cervical or bladder cancer. External applicators are positioned around the body cavity or organ to be treated, and microwave or radiofrequency energy is focused on the area to raise its temperature.
Regional perfusion techniques can be used to treat cancers in the arms and legs, such as melanoma, or cancer in some organs, such as the liver or lung. In this procedure, some of the patient’s blood is removed, heated, and then pumped (perfused) back into the limb or organ. Anticancer drugs are commonly given during this treatment.
Continuous hyperthermic peritoneal perfusion (CHPP) is a technique used to treat cancers within the peritoneal cavity (the space within the abdomen that contains the intestines, stomach, and liver), including primary peritoneal mesothelioma and stomach cancer. During surgery, heated anticancer drugs flow from a warming device through the peritoneal cavity. The peritoneal cavity temperature reaches 106–108°F.
Whole-body hyperthermia is used to treat metastatic cancer that has spread throughout the body. This can be accomplished by several techniques that raise the body temperature to 107–108°F, including the use of thermal chambers (similar to large incubators) or hot water blankets.
The effectiveness of hyperthermia treatment is related to the temperature achieved during the treatment, as well as the length of treatment and cell and tissue characteristics (1, 2). To ensure that the desired temperature is reached, but not exceeded, the temperature of the tumor and surrounding tissue is monitored throughout hyperthermia treatment (3, 5, 7). Using local anesthesia, the doctor inserts small needles or tubes with tiny thermometers into the treatment area to monitor the temperature. Imaging techniques, such as CT (computed tomography), may be used to make sure the probes are properly positioned (5).
Does hyperthermia have any complications or side effects?
Most normal tissues are not damaged during hyperthermia if the temperature remains under 111°F. However, due to regional differences in tissue characteristics, higher temperatures may occur in various spots. This can result in burns, blisters, discomfort, or pain (1, 5, 7). Perfusion techniques can cause tissue swelling, blood clots, bleeding, and other damage to the normal tissues in the perfused area; however, most of these side effects are temporary. Whole-body hyperthermia can cause more serious side effects, including cardiac and vascular disorders, but these effects are uncommon (1, 3, 7). Diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting are commonly observed after whole-body hyperthermia (7).
What does the future hold for hyperthermia?
A number of challenges must be overcome before hyperthermia can be considered a standard treatment for cancer (1, 3, 6, 7). Many clinical trials are being conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of hyperthermia. Some trials continue to research hyperthermia in combination with other therapies for the treatment of different cancers. Other studies focus on improving hyperthermia techniques.

Estimating Breast Cancer Risk

. Who develops breast cancer?Breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed non-skin cancer in American women. An estimated 213,000 American women will be diagnosed with breast cancer in 2006. The risk of breast cancer increases as women get older. Over the years, researchers have identified certain characteristics, usually called risk factors, which influence a woman's chance of getting the disease. Still, many women who develop breast cancer have no known risk factors other than growing older, and many women with known risk factors do not develop breast cancer.
2. What is the Breast Cancer Risk Assessment Tool?The Breast Cancer Risk Assessment Tool is a computer program that was developed by scientists at the National Cancer Institute and the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project (NSABP) to assist health care providers in discussing breast cancer risk with their female patients. The tool allows a health professional to project a woman's individual estimate of breast cancer risk over a 5-year period of time and over her lifetime and compares the woman's risk calculation with the average risk for a woman of the same age.

Cellular Telephone Use and Cancer Risk

Why is there concern that cellular telephones may cause cancer?
There are three main reasons why people are concerned that cellular telephones (also known as “wireless” or “mobile” telephones) may cause certain types of cancer.
Cellular telephones emit radiofrequency (RF) energy (radio waves), which is a form of radiationand is under investigation for its effects on the human body (1).
Cellular telephone technology is relatively new and is still changing, so there are few long-term studies of the effects of RF energy from cellular telephones on the human body (1).
The number of cellular telephone users has increased rapidly. As of December 2007, there were more than 255 million subscribers to cellular telephone service in the United States, according to the Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association (CTIA). This is an increase from 110 million users in 2000 and 208 million users in 2005.
For these reasons, it is important to learn whether RF energy from cellular telephones affects human health.
What is RF energy and how can it affect the body?
RF energy is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation can be divided into two types: ionizing (high-frequency) and non-ionizing (low-frequency) (2). RF energy is a form of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation. Ionizing radiation, such as that produced by x-ray machines, can pose a cancer risk at high levels of exposure. However, it is not known whether the non-ionizing radiation emitted by cellular telephones is associated with cancer risk
(2). Studies suggest that the amount of RF energy produced by cellular phones is too low to produce significant tissue heating or an increase in body temperature. However, more research is needed to determine what effects, if any, low-level non-ionizing RF energy has on the body and whether it poses a health danger (2).
How is a cellular telephone user exposed to RF energy?
A cellular telephone’s main source of RF energy is produced through its antenna. The antenna of a hand-held cellular telephone is in the handset, which is typically held against the side of the head when the telephone is in use. The closer the antenna is to the head, the greater a person’s expected exposure is to RF energy. The amount of RF energy absorbed by a person decreases significantly with increasing distance between the antenna and the user. The intensity of RF energy emitted by a cellular telephone depends on the level of the signal sent to or from the nearest base station (1).
When a call is placed from a cellular telephone, a signal is sent from the antenna of the phone to the nearest base station antenna. The base station routes the call through a switching center, where the call can be transferred to another cellular telephone, another base station, or to the local land-line telephone system. The farther a cellular telephone is from the base station antenna, the higher the power level needed to maintain the connection. This distance determines, in part, the amount of RF energy exposure to the user.
What determines how much RF energy a cellular telephone user experiences?
A cellular telephone user’s level of exposure to RF energy depends on several factors, including:
• the number and duration of calls• the amount of cellular telephone traffic at a given time• the distance from the nearest cellular base station • the quality of the cellular transmissions• how far the antenna is extended• the size of the handset• whether or not a hands-free device is used
What parts of the body may be affected during cellular telephone use?
There is concern that RF energy produced by cellular phones may affect the brain and nervous system tissue in the head because hand-held cellular telephones are usually held close to the head. Researchers have focused on whether RF energy can cause malignant (cancerous) brain tumors such as gliomas (cancers of the brain that begin in glial cells, which surround and support the nerve cells), as well as benign (noncancerous) tumors, such as acoustic neuromas (tumors that arise in the cells of the nerve that supplies the ear) and meningiomas (tumors that occur in the meninges, which are the membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord) (1). The salivary glands also may be exposed to RF energy from cellular phones held close to the head.
What studies have been done and what do they show?
Numerous studies have investigated the relationship between cellular telephone use and the risk of developing brain cancer, but results from long-term studies are still limited.
Several studies have investigated the risk of developing three types of brain tumors, namely glioma, meningioma, and acoustic neuroma. Results from the majority of these studies have found no association between hand-held cellular telephone use and the risk of brain cancer (3–8); however, some, but not all, long-term studies have suggested slightly increased risks for certain types of brain tumors (9, 10). Further evaluation of long-term exposures (more than 10 years) is needed.
A series of multinational case-control studies (comparing individuals who have a disease or condition [case subjects] with a similar group of people who do not have the disease or condition [control subjects]), collectively known as the INTERPHONE study, are being coordinated by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (11). The primary objective of these studies is to assess whether RF energy exposure from cellular telephones is associated with an increased risk of malignant or benign brain tumors and other head and neck tumors. Participating countries include Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom (12). Several reports describing data from individual countries have been published independently by researchers involved in the INTERPHONE study; however, these reports represent only a portion of the entire INTERPHONE dataset. The combined INTERPHONE analysis is underway and will provide more comprehensive and stable risk estimates than analyses from the individual countries.
Two reports published in November 2004 by researchers from individual countries that are participating in the INTERPHONE study described results of assessments of cellular telephone use and the risk of acoustic neuroma. One report described a Danish case-control study that showed no increased risk of acoustic neuroma in long-term (10 years or more) cellular telephone users compared with short-term users, and there was no increase in the incidence of tumors on the side of the head where the phone was usually held (13). The other report described a Swedish study that examined similar populations and found a slightly elevated risk of acoustic neuroma in long-term cellular telephone users but not in short-term users (14).
A pooled analysis of data from Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom did not find relationships between the risk of acoustic neuroma and the duration of cell phone use, cumulative hours of use, or number of calls; however, the risk of a tumor on the same side of the head as the reported phone use was higher among persons who had used a cell phone for 10 years or more (9).
Other reports from the Danish and Swedish researchers who are collaborating in the INTERPHONE study investigated whether a relationship exists between cellular telephone use and the risk of meningioma or glioma. These studies from Denmark and Sweden compared individuals with meningioma or glioma with a control group of disease-free individuals and found no link between these conditions and cellular telephone use (15, 16).
Pooled analyses of data from four Nordic countries and the United Kingdom did not show overall associations between the risk of glioma or meningioma and the cumulative hours of cell phone use or the number of calls (17, 18). There was a slightly increased risk of glioma occurring on the same side of the head as the reported phone use among persons who used a cell phone for at least 10 years (17).
In an attempt to avoid the issue of biases associated with case-control studies, investigators defined a cohort of 420,095 persons in Denmark with cellular phone subscriptions and linked this roster with the Danish Cancer Registry to identify brain tumors occurring in this population (7, 8). Cellular phone use was not associated with glioma, meningioma, or acoustic neuroma, even among persons who had been subscribers for 10 or more years. This type of prospective study has the advantage of not having to rely on peoples’ ability to remember past cellular phone use.
Incidence data from the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) program of the National Cancer Institute have shown no increase between 1987 and 2005 in the age-adjusted incidence of brain or other nervous system cancers despite the dramatic increase in use of cellular telephones (19).
There are very few studies of the possible relationship between cell phone use and tumors other than those of the brain and central nervous system (20–23).
Why are the results of the studies inconsistent?
There are several reasons for the discrepancies between studies:
Information about cellular telephone use, including the frequency of use and the duration of calls, has largely been assessed through questionnaires. The completeness and accuracy of the data collected during such interviews is dependent on the memory of the responding individuals. In case-control studies, individuals with brain tumors may remember cellular telephone use differently from healthy individuals, which can result in a problem known as recall bias.
Cellular telephone use is relatively new (mostly since the 1990s), and cellular technology continues to change (1). Although older studies evaluated RF energy exposure from analog telephones, most cellular telephones today use digital technology, which operates at a different frequency and power level than analog phones.
The interval between exposure to a carcinogen and the clinical onset of a tumor may be many years or decades. Scientists have been unable to monitor large cohorts of cellular telephone users for the length of time it might take for brain tumors to develop (1).
Other limitations of current epidemiologic studies on cellular telephone use and brain cancer include a lack of verifiable data regarding cumulative RF energy exposure over time (the total amount of RF energy individuals have encountered) and potential errors in the exposure information reported by study participants after individuals are diagnosed with cancer, a problem known as reporting bias. In addition, participation rates are frequently different between case subjects and control subjects in brain tumor studies, a problem known as participation bias. Some studies have indicated greater participation by individuals diagnosed with brain tumors compared with controls, and participation rates may be related to cellular phone use.
The use of “hands-free” wireless technology, such as Bluetooth®, is increasing and may contribute to variation in cellular phone exposures.
Although research has not consistently demonstrated a link between cellular telephone use and cancer, scientists still caution that further surveillance is needed before conclusions can be drawn about the risk of cancer from cellular telephones (1).
Do children have a higher risk of developing cancer due to cellular telephone use than adults?
There are currently no data on cellular telephone use and risk in children because no published studies to date have included children. Cellular telephone use is increasing rapidly in children and adolescents, and they are likely to accumulate many years of exposure during their lives (1). In addition, children may be at greater risk because their nervous systems are still developing at the time of exposure.
What can cellular telephone users do to reduce their exposure to RF energy?
The U.S. Food and Administration (FDA) has suggested some steps that cellular telephone users can take if they are concerned about potential health risks from cellular telephones:
Reserve the use of cellular telephones for shorter conversations, or for times when a conventional phone is not available.
Switch to a type of cellular telephone with a hands-free device that will place more distance between the antenna and the head of the phone user.
Hands-free kits reduce the amount of RF energy exposure to the head because the antenna, which is the source of RF energy, is not placed against the head (2). However, most studies conducted on cellular telephone use and cancer risk have focused on hand-held models not equipped with hands-free systems because they deliver the most RF energy to the user’s head.
Where can I find more information about RF energy exposure?
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC), which regulates interstate and international communications, provides consumers with information about human exposure to RF energy from cellular telephones and other devices on the Internet. This Web page includes information about the specific absorption rate (SAR) of cellular telephones produced and marketed within the last 1 to 2 years. The SAR corresponds to the relative amount of RF energy absorbed into the head of a cellular telephone user. Consumers can access this information using the phone’s FCC ID number, which is usually located on the case of the phone.
What are other sources of RF energy?
The most common use of RF energy is for telecommunications (2). In the United States, cellular telephones operate in a frequency range of about 1,800 to 2,200 megahertz (MHz) (1). In this range, the electromagnetic radiation produced is in the form of non-ionizing RF energy. AM/FM radios, VHF/UHF televisions, and cordless telephones (telephones that have a base unit connected to the telephone wiring in a house) operate at lower radio frequencies than cellular telephones. Other sources of RF energy, including radar, satellite stations devices, industrial equipment, and microwave ovens, operate at somewhat higher radio frequencies.

How To Find a Doctor or Treatment Facility If You Have Cancer

If you have been diagnosed with cancer, finding a doctor and treatment facility for your cancer care is an important step to getting the best treatment possible. Although the health care system is complex, resources are available to guide you in finding a doctor, getting a second opinion, and choosing a treatment facility. Below are suggestions and information resources to help you with these important decisions.
Physician and Credentials
When choosing a doctor for your cancer care, you may find it helpful to know some of the terms used to describe a doctor’s training and credentials. Most physicians who treat people with cancer are medical doctors (they have an M.D. degree) or osteopathic doctors (they have a D.O. degree). The basic training for both types of physicians includes 4 years of premedical education at a college or university, 4 years of medical school to earn an M.D. or D.O. degree, and postgraduate medical education through internships and residences. This training usually lasts 3 to 7 years. Physicians must pass an exam to become licensed (legally permitted) to practice medicine in their state. Each state or territory has its own procedures and general standards for licensing physicians.
Specialists are physicians who have completed their residency training in a specific area, such as internal medicine. Independent specialty boards certify physicians after they have fulfilled certain requirements. These requirements include meeting specific education and training criteria, being licensed to practice medicine, and passing an examination given by the specialty board. Doctors who have met all of the requirements are given the status of "Diplomate" and are board-certified as specialists. Doctors who are board-eligible have obtained the required education and training, but have not completed the specialty board examination.
After being trained and certified as a specialist, a physician may choose to become a subspecialist. A subspecialist has at least 1 additional year of full-time education in a particular area of a specialty. This training is designed to increase the physician's expertise in a specific field. Specialists can be board-certified in their subspecialty as well.

CANCERS OF BLOOD:
Blood, as we know, carries oxygen to and from the lungs to the other parts of the body. It picks up wastes on its way back to the lungs.
Blood has different components: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma. The red blood cells (rbc), platelets and some white blood cells (wbc) called monocytes, belong to the “myeloid” group. All other white blood cells belong to the “lymphoid” group.
The bone marrow is the place where the blood cells are mainly produced. The production of the different types of blood cells is a carefully controlled activity. When cancer affects the bone marrow, it interferes with the process that regulates cell production. White blood cells, of the Lymphoid or Myeloid variety are produced, but they do not mature into fully functioning, normal cells. These abnormal cells grow in numbers and crowd out the normal cells of the blood, and weaken the body’s defence mechanism.